ہماری بدلتی قدریں

(ہماری بدلتی قدریں:‏ پروفیسر ثریا بتول علوی)

انتخاب:  عبدالعزیز بھٹو منصوری

Muslim Scientists:

Ibn Al-Nafis Damishqui - Medicine - (1213-1288)

Ibn Al-Nafis was a reputed physician and a renowned expert on Shafi'i School of Jurisprudence. He is famous for the discovery of the blood's circulatory system, and was the first to describe the constitution of lungs, Bronchi, and the coronary arteries. Ala-al-Din Abu al-Hasan Ali Ibn Abi al-Hazm al-Qarshi Ibn Al-Nafis Al-Damashqi was born in 607 A.H. (1213 C.E.) in Damascus. He was educated at the Medical College (and hospital) founded by Nur al-Din Zangi. Ibn Al-Nafis studied medicine under the famous physician Muhazzab al-Din Abd Al-Rahim. He also studied jurisprudence, literature and theology.

His expertise and reputation in medicine and jurisprudence was rewarded by an appointment as the Principal of the famous Nasri Hospital in Cairo. Here, he trained many medical specialists, including the famous surgeon Ibn al-Quff al-Masihi. Subsequently, he served at the Mansuriya School at Cairo. As part of his will, Ibn Al-Nafis donated his house, library and clinic to the Mansuriya Hospital. He died in 678 A.H. (1288 C.E.).

Ibn Al-Nafis made major contributions in medicine. He wrote detailed commentaries and critique on the medical knowledge available up to his time, and added to it many original contributions. His greatest original contribution was the discovery of the blood's circulatory system, which was rediscovered three centuries later. Ibn Al-Nafis was the first to correctly describe the constitution of lungs and gave a description of the Bronchi and the interaction between the human body's vessels for air and blood. Also, he elaborated the function of the coronary arteries as feeding the cardiac muscle.

Ibn Al-Nafis� Al-Shamil fi al-Tibb was an encyclopedia comprising 300 volumes, but it could not be completed as planned due to his death. This manuscript is preserved as special collections in Damascus. His book on ophthalmology is primarily an original contribution and is also extant. Among his books Mujaz al-Qanun became most famous and later, several commentaries were written on it. He wrote another famous book Kitab al-Mukhtar fi al-Aghdhiya that deals with the effects of diet on health. He also wrote several commentaries on Hippocrates' book and on Ibn Sina's Qanun, which are still extant.

Ibn Al-Nafis' work exerted great influence on the development of medical science, both in the Islamic world and Europe. His work integrated the medical knowledge with great clarity and emphasized precision. Initially, only one of his books was translated into Latin. Consequently, much of his work remained unknown to Europe for several centuries.

Abu Al-Qasim Al-Zahravi (Albucasis) - Surgery, Medicine - (936-1013)

Abu al-Qasim Khalaf ibn al-Abbas Al-Zahrawi was born near Cordoba, Spain, when it was part of the Islamic Empire. He was a physician, surgeon and chemist. He is best remembered for his encyclopedia of medicine, the Al-Tasrif li man ajaz an-il-talif (An Aid for Those Who Lack the Capacity to Read Big Books), known as the al-Tasrif. This became a standard reference in Islamic and European medicine for over 500 years. In Europe, Al-Zahrawi was known as Albucasis, and was particularly famous for his surgical knowledge.

Al-Zahrawi’s encyclopedia included sections on surgery, medicine,orthopaedics, ophthalmology, pharmacology and nutrition. In it he described over 300 diseases and their treatments. He also included detailed descriptions of numerous surgical procedures, and the use of over 200 surgical instruments, many of which he developed. The most famous section of the encyclopedia, on surgery, was translated into Latin by Gerard of Cremona in the 1100s. From this time it also became a standard text in Europe, and was still being reprinted in the 1770s.

While famed for his writing, Al-Zahrawi was also a prominent practitioner and teacher. In recognition of his skills, he was appointed as the court physician to King Al-Hakam II of Spain.

Abu Raihan Al-Biruni - Astronomy, Mathematics, determined Earth's circumference - (973-1048)

Abu Raihan Mohammad Ibn Ahmad al-Biruni was one of the well-known figures associated with the court of King Mahmood Ghaznawi, who was one of the famous Muslim kings of the 11th century C.E. Al-Biruni was a versatile scholar and scientist who had equal facility in physics, metaphysics, mathematics, geography and history. Born in the city of Kheva near "Ural" in 973 C.E., he was a contemporary of the well-known physician Ibn Sina. At an early age, the fame of his scholarship went around and when Sultan Mahmood Ghaznawi conquered his homeland, he took al-Biruni along with him in his journeys to India several times and thus he had the opportunity to travel all over India during a period of 20 years. He learnt Hindu philosophy, mathematics, geography and religion from thre Pandits to whom he taught Greek and Arabic science and philosophy. He died in 1048 C.E. at the age of 75, after having spent 40 years in thus gathering knowledge and making his own original contributions to it.
He recorded observations of his travels through India in his well-known book Kitab al-Hind which gives a graphic account of the historical and social conditions of the sub-continent. At the end of this book he makes a mention of having translated two Sanskrit books into Arabic, one called Sakaya, which deals with the creation of things and their types, and the second, Patanjal dealing with what happens after the spirit leaves the body. His descriptions of India were so complete that even the Aein-i-Akbari written by Abu-al- Fadal during the reign of Akbar, 600 years later, owes a great deal to al-Biruni's book. He observed that the Indus valley must be considered as an ancient sea basin filled up with alluvials.
On his return from India, al-Biruni wrote his famous book Qanun-i Masoodi (al-Qanun al-Masudi, fi al-Hai'a wa al-Nujum), which he dedicated to Sultan Masood. The book discusses several theories of astronomy, trigonometry, solar, lunar, and planetary motions and relative topics. In another well-known book al-Athar al-Baqia, he has attempted a connected account of ancient history of nations and the related geographical knowledge. In this book, he has discussed the rotation of the earth and has given correct values of latitudes and longitudes of various places. He has also made considerable contribution to several aspects of physical and economic geography in this book.
His other scientific contributions include the accurate determination of the densities of 18 different stones. He also wrote the Kitab-al-Saidana, which is an extensive materia medica that combines the then existing Arabic knowledge on the subject with the Indian medicine. His book the Kitab-al-Jamahir deals with the properties of various precious stones. He was also an astrologer and is reputed to have astonished people by the accuracy of his predictions. He gave a clear account of Hindu numerals, elaborating the principle of position. Summation of a geometric progression appropos of the chess game led to the number:

16^16° - 1 = 18,446,744,073,709,551,619.

He developed a method for trisection of angle and other problems which cannot be solved with a ruler and a compass alone. Al-Biruni discussed, centuries before the rest of the world, the question whether the earth rotates around its axis or not. He was the first to undertake experiments related to astronomical phenomena. His scientific method, taken together with that of other Muslim scientists, such as Ibn al-Haitham, laid down the early foundation of modern science. He ascertained that as compared with the speed of sound the speed of light is immense. He explained the working of natural springs and artesian wells by the hydrostatic principle of communicating vessels. His investigations included description of various monstrosities, including that known as "Siamese" twins. He observed that flowers have 3,4,5,6, or 18 petals, but never 7 or 9.
He wrote a number of books and treatises. Apart from Kitab-al- Hind (History and Geography of India), al-Qanun al-Masudi (Astro- nomy, Trigonometry), al-Athar al-Baqia (Ancient History and Geography), Kitab al-Saidana (Materia Medica) and Kitab al-Jawahir (Precious Stones) as mentioned above, his book al-Tafhim-li-Awail Sina'at al-Tanjim gives a summary of mathematics and astronomy.
He has been considered as one of the very greatest scientists of Islam, and, all considered, one of the greatest of all times. His critical spirit, love of truth, and scientific approach were combined with a sense of toleration. His enthusiasm for knowledge may be judged from his claim that the phrase Allah is Omniscient does not justify ignorance.

Al-Farabi (Al Pharabius) - Sociology, Logic, Philosophy, Political Science, Music -(870-950)

Al-Farabi, known as Al-Phrarabius in the West, contributed to philosophy, logic, sociology and science. He was best known as the "Second Teacher" (al-Mou'allim al-Thani), Aristotle being the First. Abu Nasr Mohammad Ibn al-Farakh al-Farabi was born near Farab in Turkistan in 870 C.E. His ancestors were originally of Persian descent and his father was a General. After completing his education at Farab and Bukhara, he moved to Baghdad for higher studies. Here, he studied several languages, science and technology, and philosophy. Also, he traveled to Damascus and Egypt for further studies. Al-Farabi died a bachelor in Damascus in 950 C.E.

Al-Frabi was a Qadi (Judge) in the early years of his long career. He eventually decided to take up teaching as his profession. Al-Farabi showed remarkable competence in several languages. Due his exceptional talents in several branches of science and philosophy, he received the attention of King Saif al-Daula at Halab (Aleppo). However, due to some unfortunate circumstances, he suffered great hardships and was once demoted to the caretaker of a garden.

Al-Frabi's major contribution is in logic, philosophy, and sociology. In addition, he contributed immensely to Mathematics, science, medicine, and music. He was also an Encyclopedist. Al-Farabi's great contribution in logic was that he made the study of logic systematic by dividing the subject into two categories: Takhayyul (idea) and Thubut (proof). He attempted to reconcile Platonism and Aristotelismwith theology and wrote commentaries on physics, logic, and meteorology. Al-Farabi held the belief that philosophy and Islam are in harmony. He proved the existence of the void in his contribution to Physics. His book Kitab al-Ihsa al-'Ulum presents fundamental principles and classification of sciences from a fresh perspective.

Al-Frabi wrote several books on sociology, the most famous of which is the book entitled 'Ara Ahl al-Madina al-Fadila' (The Model City). It is a significant contribution to sociology and political science. He also wrote books on metaphysics and psychology that included his original work. Al-Farabi states that an isolated individual cannot achieve all the perfections by himself and without the aid of many other individuals. It is the innate disposition of every man to join another human being or other men in the labor he ought to perform....Therefore, to achieve what he can of that perfection, every man needs to stay in the neighborhood of others and associate with them. At another place he writes, "Instruction in the theoretical science should be given either to the imams and princes, or else to those who should preserve the theoretical sciences....They should be made to pursue a course of study and form the habits of character from their childhood until each of them reaches maturity."

He was an expert in music, contributed to musical notes and invented several musical instruments. Al-Farabi could play his instrument so well as to make people laugh or weep. His book on music, entitled 'Kitab al-Musiqa,' is well known.

Al-Farabi wrote a large number of books in several fields that include his original contribution. One hundred seventeen books are known to have survived. Of theses forty-three books are on logic, seven each on political science and ethics, eleven on metaphysics, and twenty-eight books on medicine, sociology, music and commentaries.

Al-Farabi's book 'Fusus al-Hikam' was used as a text book of philosophy for several centuries in Europe. He had great influence on science and philosophy for several centuries.

Ali Ibn Rabban Al-Tabari - Medicine, Mathematics, Calligraphy - (838-870)

Al-Tabari was the teacher of the distinguished physician Zakariya al-Razi (Rhazes). Ali Ibn Rabban Al-Tabari was born in 838 C.E. He was also known as Abu al-Hasan. Al-Tabari is most famous for his world-renowned medical treatise 'Firdous al-Hikmat.' Besides the medical science, he was also an accomplished Philosopher, Mathematician and Astronomer. He died in 870 C.E.

Ali Ibn Rabban’s parents belonged to the city of Marv (Tabristan). His father Sahl belonged to a respectable family and his compatriots called him as ‘Rattan’ a high title of respect meaning ‘my leader.’ His father was a very successful and accomplished physician and was known for his work in the art of calligraphy. He was well learned in Astronomy, Philosophy, Mathematics and Literature. His father wrote a scholarly commentary on Batlemus's book Al-Mijasti, expounding some of the finer points that were not understood well by previous translators.

Ali Al-Tabari received education in Medical sciences and calligraphy from his father Sahl. He attained competence in these fields at an early age. In addition, he also mastered Syriac and Greek languages.

Al-Tabari’s world-renowned seven-volume treatise Firdous al-Hikmat is the first Medical encyclopedia that incorporates several branches of medical science. This work was translated and published for the first time in the twentieth century. Prior to this publication, only five of his original manuscripts were found in libraries of the West. Dr. M.Z. Siddiqui has recently edited all volumes of Firdous al-Hikmat. In the Preface, Dr. Siddiqui has provided very useful information regarding this encyclopedia and Al-Tabari. Where necessary, he has added explanatory notes to facilitate understanding of this work. Firdous al-Hikmat was published later also in the Western Europe. The seven volumes contain the following:

Volume One: Kulliyat-e-Tibb. This volume discusses contemporary knowledge of medical science.

Volume Two: Elucidation of the organs of the human body, rules for keeping good health, and comprehensive account of certain muscular diseases.

Volume Three: Discussion and prescription of diet for good health and prevention of diseases.

Volume Four: Discussion of all diseases from head to toe. This volume is most valuable of the seven volumes. It is the largest volume and is nearly half the size of the encyclopedia. Volume four is divided into twelve sections:

1. General causes relating to eruption of diseases;

2. Diseases of the head and the brain;

3. Diseases relating to the eye, nose, ear, mouth and the teeth;

4. Muscular diseases (paralysis and spasm);

5. Diseases of the regions of the chest, throat and the lungs;

6. Diseases of the abdomen;

7. Diseases of the liver;

8. Diseases of gallbladder and spleen;

9. Intestinal diseases;

10. Different kinds of fever;

11. Miscellaneous diseases - includes a brief explanation of organs of the body;

12. Examination of pulse and urine;

Volume Five: Flavor, taste and color.

Volume Six: Drugs and Poison.

Volume Seven: Miscellaneous topics on health care. It includes a discussion of climate and astronomy, and a brief review of Indian medicine.

Al-Tabari wrote Firdous al-Hikmat in Arabic and also translated it into Syriac. He wrote two more works, Deen-e-Doulat and Hifz al-Shehhat. The Oxford University library has the latter manuscript.

Al-Razi (Rhazes) - Medicine, Ophthalmology, Smallpox , Chemistry, Astronomy - (864-930)

The well-known writer George Sarton says in his Introduction to the History of Science that "Rhazes was the greatest physician of Islam and the Medieval Ages." And the Encyclopedia of Islam remarks that "Rhazes remained up to the 17th century the undisputable authority of medicine." The Bulletin of the World Health Organization (WHO), May 1970, pays tribute to him by stating: "His writings on smallpox and measles show originality and accuracy, and his essay on infectious diseases was the first scientific treatise on the subject."

Abu Bakr Muhammad Ibn Zakariya Ar-Razi was born at Ray near modern Tehran in 251 A.H. (864 C.E.) It is said that early in his life al-Razi was interested in singing and music besides other professions. Because of his eagerness for knowledge, he became more interested in the study of alchemy and chemistry, philosophy, logic, mathematics and physics. It was the field of medicine that he spent most of his life, practicing it, studying and writing about it. Due to his fame in medicine he was appointed head of the physicians of the Ray Hospital, and later put in charge of the Baghdad main Hospital during the reign of the Adhud-Daulah.

An interesting episode of Al-Razi's remarkable method of choosing the right spot for the Baghdad main hospital is described as follows. When Adhud Daulah asked Al-Razi to build a hospital, he had pieces of fresh meat placed at various parts of the city of Baghdad. Some time later, he checked each piece to find out which one was less rotten than the others, and he chose the spot of the least rotten pieces of meat a site for the hospital.

Ar-Razi was a pioneer in many areas of medicine and treatment and the health sciences in general. In particular, he was a pioneer in the fields of pediatrics, obstetrics and ophthalmology. In medicine, his contribution was so significant that it can only be compared to that of Ibn Sina (Avicenna). Some of his works in medicine, e.g., Kitab al-Mansoori, Al-Hawi, Kitab al-Mulooki and Kitab al-Judari wa al-Hasabah earned everlasting fame. A special feature of his medical system was that he greatly favored cures through correct and regulated food. This was combined with his emphasis on the influence of psychological factors on health. He also tried proposed remedies first on animals in order to evaluate in their effects and side effects. Ar-Razi was the first person to introduce the use of alcohol (Arabic Al-Kuhl) for medical purposes. He was also an expert surgeon and was the first to use opium for anaesthesia.

Ar-Razi was the first to give an account of the operation for the extraction of a cataract and also the first scientist to discuss the pupillary reaction or the widening and narrowing of the pupil of the eye. He explained that the reaction was due to the presence of small muscles which act according to the intensity of light. The current understanding on this subject confirms his work.

The greatest medical work of Ar-Razi (Rhazes), and perhaps the most extensive ever written by a medical man, is al-Hawi, i.e., the "Comprehensive Book," which includes indeed Greek, Syrian, and early Arabic medical knowledge in their entirety. Throughout his life Ar-Razi must have collected extracts from all the books available to him on medicine. In his last years, he combined these with his medical experience into an enormous twenty volume medical encyclopedia. Al-Hawi was the largest medical encyclopedia composed by then. It was translated into Latin under the auspices of Charles I of Anjou by the Sicilian Jewish physician, Faraj ibn Salim (Farragut) in 1279 and was repeatedly printed from 1488 onwards. Al-Hawi was known as 'Continens' in its Latin translation. "By 1542 there had appeared five editions of this vast and costly work, besides many more of various parts of it. Its influence on European medicine was thus very considerable." (The Legacy of Islam, pp. 323-5). Another scholar points out that Ar-Razi's "al-Hawi was one of the nine volumes constituting the whole library of the Paris Faculty of Medicine in 1395." (Durant; Haider, Bammate, 29).

Kitab al-Mansoori, which was translated into Latin (known by the title 'Liber Almansoris') in the 1480s in Milan, comprised ten volumes and dealt exhaustively with Greco-Arab medicine. Some of its volumes have been published separately into German and French. The ninth volume of the translation made by Gerard of Cremona the "Nonus Al-Mansuri," was a popular text in Europe until the sixteenth century (Durant, p247). Ar-Razi in Al-Mansoori devoted a whole chapter on anatomy. In it he has presented a detailed description of the various organs of the human body, and sensory and motor parts. He has also given elaborate descriptions of the intervertebral foramina and the spinal chord, and correctly asserted that an injury either to the brain or spinal chord would lead to paralysis of the parts of the organs whose nerve supply was damaged or destroyed.

His al-Judari wa al-Hasabah was the first treatise on smallpox and chickenpox, and is largely based on Razi's original contribution. It was first translated into Latin in 1565 and later into several European languages and went into forty editions between 1498 and 1866. It was translated into English by William A. Greenhill, London, 1848. Through his treatise Razi became the first to draw clear comparisons between smallpox and chickenpox.

Ar-Razi gave many valuable pieces of advice to practicing physicians: "A physician should not forget to ask his patient all sorts of questions pertaining to the possible causes of his illness, both internal and external....If a physician can treat a patient through nutrition rather than medicine he has done the best thing. A physician should always try to convince his patient of improvement and hope in the effectiveness of treatment, for the psychological state of the patient has a great effect on his physical condition. He used to advise his patients thus: "Whoever seeks treatment with too many physicians might suffer the risk of the faults of each one of them. A patient should restrict consultation to one trustworthy physician."

Ar-Razi also compounded medicines and took keen interest in experimental and theoretical sciences. It is conjectured that he developed his chemistry independently of Jabir Ibn Hayyan (Geber). He has discussed several chemical reactions and also given full descriptions of and designs for about twenty instruments used in chemical investigations. His description of chemical knowledge is in plain and plausible language. One of his books Kitab-al-Asrar deals with the preparation of chemical materials and their utilization. Another one was translated into Latin under the name Liber Experimentorum. He went beyond his predecessors in dividing substances into plants, animals and minerals, thus in a way opening the way for inorganic and organic chemistry. By and large, this classification still holds. As a chemist, he was the first to produce sulfuric acid together with some other acids, and he also prepared alcohol by fermenting sweet products.

His contribution as a philosopher is also well known. The basic elements in his philosophical system are the creator, spirit, matter, space and time. He discusses their characteristics in detail and his concepts of space and time as constituting a continuum is outstanding.

Ar-Razi was a prolific author, who has left monumental treatises on numerous subjects. He has more than two hundred outstanding scientific contributions to his credit, out of which about half deal with medicine and twenty-one on Alchemy. He also wrote on physics, mathematics, astronomy and optics, but these writings could not be preserved. A number of his other books, including Jami-fi-al-Tib, Maqalah fi al-Hasat fi Kuli wa al-Mathana, Kitab al-Qalb, Kitab-al-Mafasil, Kitab-al-'Ilaj al-Ghoraba, Bar al-Sa'ah, and al-Taqseem wa al-Takhsir, have been published in various European languages. About 40 of his manuscripts are still extant in the museums and libraries of Iran, Paris, Britain, and Rampur (India). His contribution has greatly influenced the development of science, in general, and medicine in particular.

Like other great scholars of Islamic history, Razi's erudition was all-embracing and his scientific work remarkable. The foregoing description represents only a part of the great legacy left by Ar-Razi. He died in 930 C.E. Razi's portrait adorns the great hall of the Faculty of Medicine in the University of Paris.

Ibn Al-Haitham / Ibn-e-Al-Hisham (Alhazen) - Physics,Optics, Mathematics - (965-1040)

Abu 'Ali Al-Hasan bin Al-Haytham (965-1040 C.E.) was one of the most eminent physicists, whose contributions to optics and scientific methods are outstanding. Known in the West as Alhazen, Ibn Al-Haytham was born in 965 CE in Basrah, and was educated in Basrah and Baghdad. Thereafter, he went to Egypt, where he was asked to find ways of controlling the flood of the Nile.

After failing in his attempt to regulate the flow of the Nile, Ibn Al-Haytham feared that al-Hakim would punish him. To avoid punishment, he pretended to be insane until al-Hakim's death. He also traveled to Spain and during this period, he had ample time for his scientific pursuits, which included optics, mathematics, physics, medicine and development of scientific methods -- on each of which he has left several outstanding books.

He made a thorough examination of the passage of light through various media and discovered the laws of refraction. He also carried out the first experiments on the dispersion of light into its constituent colors. His bookKitaab-al-Manaadhir was translated into Latin in the Middle Ages, as also his book dealing with the colors of sunset. He dealt at length with the theory of various physical phenomena like shadows, eclipses, the rainbow and speculated on the physical nature of light.

Ibn Al-Haytham is the first to accurately describe the various parts of the eye and give a scientific explanation of the process of vision. He also attempted to explain binocular vision, and gave a correct explanation of the apparent increase in size of the sun and the moon when near the horizon. He is known for the earliest use of the camera obscura. He contradicted Ptolemy's and Euclid's theory of vision, that objects are seen by rays of light emanating from the eyes; according to him the rays originate in the object of vision and not in the eye. Through these extensive researches on optics, he has been considered as the Father of Modern Optics.

The Latin translation of his main work, Kitaab-al-Manaadhir, exerted a great influence upon Western science, for example on the work of Roger Bacon and Kepler. It brought about great progress in experimental methods. His research in catoptrics centered on spherical and parabolic mirrors and spherical aberration. He made the important observation that the ratio between the angle of incidence and refraction does not remain constant and investigated the magnifying power of a lens. His catoptrics contains the important problem known as ‘Alhazen's problem’. It comprises drawing lines from two points in the plane of a circle meeting at a point on the circumference and making equal angles with the normal at that point. This leads to an equation of the fourth degree.

In his book Meezaan al-Hikmah, Ibn Al-Haytham has discussed the density of the atmosphere and developed a relation between it and the elevation. He also studied atmospheric refraction. He discovered that the twilight only ceases or begins when the sun is 19° below the horizon and attempted to measure the height of the atmosphere on that basis. He has also discussed the theories of attraction between masses, and it seems that he was aware of the magnitude of acceleration due to gravity.

Ibn Al-Haytham's contribution to mathematics and physics was extensive. In mathematics, he developed analytical geometry by establishing a link between algebra and geometry. He studied the mechanics of motion of a body, and was the first to maintain that a body moves perpetually unless an external force stops it or changes its direction of motion. This would seem equivalent to the first law of motion.

The list of his books runs to 200 or so, very few of which have survived. Even his monumental treatise on optics survived through its Latin translation. During the middle Ages, his books on cosmology were translated into Latin, Hebrew and other languages. He has also written on the subject of evolution, a book that deserves serious attention even today.

In his writing, one can see clear development of the scientific methods as developed and applied by the Muslims, comprising the systematic observation of physical phenomena and their linking together into a scientific theory. This was a major breakthrough in scientific methodology, making it distinct from guess-work and conjecture, and placed scientific pursuits on a sound foundation comprising systematic relationship between observation, hypothesis and verification.

Ibn Al-Haytham's influence on physical sciences in general and optics in particular, has been held in high esteem and, in fact, it ushered in a new era in optical research, both in theory and practice.

Muslim Scientists:

Abu Rehan Muhammad Bin Ahmed Al Beruni

Al-Beruni's full name is Abu Rehan Mohammad bin Ahmed Al-Beruni. He was born in 973 C.E. at Khawarzim (the old name of Kala-Kalpakskaya in present Uzbekistan). He is remembered by the world as a great and outstanding Astronomer, Physician, Physicist, Mathematician, Geographer, Geologist and Astrologer. Because of his wonderful contributions in most of the above mentioned fields, Abu Rehan Mohammad bin Ahmed Al-Beruni has been given the title of 'al-Ustadh'. He was also a good linguist and mastered Greek, Syriac and Sanskrit. He was a contemporary of Ibn Sina (known as Avicenna in the West).
Abu Rehan Mohammad bin Ahmed Al-Beruni discovered seven different ways of finding North and South directions. He is probably the first scientist to thoroughly discuss and prove that the Earth moves or rotates around its axis. He also calculated the Longitudes and Latitudes very accurately. All these calculations, observations and
Theories are presented in his book 'Al-Ather Al-Baqia'. He stated that the speed of light is immense in comparison to the speed of sound. He gave definition and detailed description of the Milky Way.
He was a conspicuous scientist in regard to his disciplines. He extended the horizons of various disciplines and added the flavor of his meretricious findings.
His very famous book, 'Al-Tafhim-ki Awail Sina'at al-Tanjin', sums up his works of Mathematics and Astronomy. He gave the Specific Weights of eighteen elements.
His other famous books are; 'Kitab-al Jamahir' on properties of precious stones, 'Kitab al-Hind' which gives a detailed account of the Indian life, religion, languages, cultures and also, observations on geography, 'Al-Qanun Al-Masudi Fi Al-Haia Wa Al-Najum' on Trigonometry, Astronomy, solar, lunar and planetary motion plus twenty-three observations on Equinoxes.Abu Rehan Mohammad bin Ahmed Al-Beruni died in 1048 C.E. at Ghazna. 

 

Muslim Scientists:

Muslim Scientists:

The Five Pillars of Islam

The 'Five Pillars' of Islam are the foundation of Muslim life:

• Faith or belief in the Oneness of God and the finality of the prophethood of Muhammad;
• Establishment of the daily prayers;
• Concern for and almsgiving to the needy;
• Self-purification through fasting; and
• The pilgrimage to Makkah for those who are able.

Iman or Faith

"There is none worthy of worship except God and Muhammad is the messenger of God." This declaration of faith is called the Shahadah, a simple formula that all the faithful pronounce. The significance of this declaration is the belief that the only purpose of life is to serve and obey God, and this is achieved through the teachings and practices of the Last  Prophet, Muhammad. 
 

Salah or Prayer

Salah is the name for the obligatory prayers that are performed five times a day, and are a direct link between the worshipper and God. There is no hierarchical authority in Islam and there are no priests. Prayers are led by a learned person who knows the Qur'an and is generally chosen by the congregation.
Prayers are said at dawn, mid-day, late-afternoon, sunset and nightfall,  and thus determine the rhythm of the entire day. These five prescribed prayers contain verses from the Qur'an, and are said in Arabic, the  language of the Revelation. Personal supplications, however, can be  offered in one's own language and at any time.
Although it is preferable to worship together in a mosque, a Muslim may  pray almost anywhere, such as in fields, offices, factories and universities. Oftentimes visitors to the Muslim world are struck by the centrality of prayers in daily life.
A translation of the Adan or Call to Prayer is:
God is Great.
God is Great.
God is Great.
God is Great.
I testify that there is none worthy of worship except God.
I testify that there is none worthy of worship except God.
I testify that Muhammad is the messenger of God.
I testify that Muhammad is the messenger of God.
Come to prayer!
Come to prayer!
Come to success!
Come to success!
God is Great!
God is Great!
There is none worthy of worship except God.

Zakah 

The financial obligation upon Muslims.

 An important principle of Islam is that everything belongs to God, and that wealth is therefore held by human beings in trust. The word zakah means  both "purification" and "growth." Our possessions are purified by setting aside a proportion for those in need and for the society in general. Like the pruning of plants, this cutting back balances and encourages new growth.
 Each Muslim calculates his or her own zakah individually. This involves the annual payment of a fortieth of one's capital, excluding such items as primary residence, car and professional tools.
An individual may also give as much as he or she pleases as sadaqa-h,  and does so preferably in secret. Although this word can be translated as "voluntary charity" it has a wider meaning.
The Prophet said, "Even meeting your brother with a cheerful face is an act of charity." The Prophet also said: "Charity is a necessity for every Muslim." He was asked: "What if a person has nothing?" The Prophet  replied: "He should work with his own hands for his benefit and then give something out of such earnings in charity." The Companions of the Prophet asked: "What if he is not able to work?" The Prophet said: "He should help the poor and needy." The Companions further asked: "What if he cannot do even that?" The Prophet said: "He should urge others to do good." The Companions said: "What if he lacks that also?" The Prophet said: "He should check himself from doing evil. That is also an act of charity."

Sawm or Fasting

Every year in the month of Ramada-n, all Muslims fast from dawn until sundown--abstaining from food, drink, and sexual relations with their spouses.
 Those who are sick, elderly, or on a journey, and women who are menstruating, pregnant or nursing, are permitted to break the fast and  make up an equal number of days later in the year if they are healthy and able. Children begin to fast (and to observe prayers) from puberty, although many start earlier.
Although fasting is beneficial to health, it is mainly a method of self-purification and self-restraint. By cutting oneself from worldly comforts, even for a short time, a fasting person focuses on his or her purpose in life by constantly being aware of the presence of God.  God states in the Qur'an:  "O you who believe! Fasting is prescribed for you as it was prescribed to those before you that you may learn self-restraint." (Qur'an 2:183)

Hajj or Pilgrimage

The pilgrimage to Makkah (the hajj) is an obligation only for those who are physically and financially able to do so. Nevertheless, over two million people go to Makkah each year from every corner of the globe providing a unique opportunity for those of different nations to meet one another.
 The annual hajj begins in the twelfth month of the Islamic year (which is lunar, not solar, so that hajj and Ramada-n fall sometimes in summer, sometimes in winter). Pilgrims wear special clothes: simple garments that strip away distinctions of class and culture, so that all stand equal before God.
The rites of the hajj, which are of Abrahamic origin, include going around the Ka'bah seven times, and going seven times between the hills of Safa and Marwa as did Hagar (Hajir, Abraham's wife) during her search for water. The pilgrims later stand together on the wide plains of 'Arafat (a large expanse of desert outside Makkah) and join in prayer for God's  forgiveness, in what is often thought as a preview of the Day of Judgment.
The close of the hajj is marked by a festival, the 'Id al Adha, which is celebrated with prayers and the exchange of gifts in Muslim communities everywhere. This and the 'Id al Fitr, a festive day celebrating the end of Ramada-n, are the two holidays of the Islamic calendar.

Islam, Qur'an & Science

The Concept of Charity in Islam

By Maulana Wahiduddin Khan

Date: 30 March 2000

Charity, preached by every religion of the world, is a way of bringing justice to society. And justice is the essence of religion, Islam has therefore made charity, that is zakat, obligatory and binding upon all those who embrace the faith; it has been made into an institution in order to give in permanence and regularity.

All human beings, according to Islam, have been created by one and the same God, and for this reason they belong to one great brotherhood. All being descendants of the same progenitor, Adam and Eve, they should naturally be each other's well-wishers. They must willingly come to one another's assistance, like members of the same large family. Islam has, therefore, laid the greatest of emphasis on the support of destitute and disabled members of society. It is a sacred duty of the wealthy to give part of their possessions to fulfill the needs of the deprived sections of the community.

A society can flourish only when its members do not spend all their wealth on the satisfaction of their own desires but reserve a portion of it for parents, relatives neighbors, the poor and the incapacitated. As the saying goes: Charity begins at home. A true believer is thus always prepared, after meeting the needs of his family, to assist other people in need of his help.

There are two forms of charity in Islam - obligatory and voluntary, called zakat and sadaqa respectively. Zakah, from the verb zaka, which signifies "to thrive," "to be wholesome," "to be pure" means purification. Giving up of a portion of the wealth one may possess in excess of what is needed for sustenance, is to "purify" or legalize it so that the remainder may lawfully be used by the alms giver.

Deducting zakat from one's earnings is a material acknowledgment of the fact that the actual giver is God. Since the giver is God, the recipient is duty bound to spend it in His cause.

The law of zakat is to take from those who have wealth and give it away to those who do not. This rotation of wealth is a way to balance social inequality.

Islam has established this institution to make concern for the poor a permanent and compulsory duty. This means an annual contribution of two and a half percent of one's income to public welfare. The rate on other types of wealth such as agricultural produce and jewelry is more. It is incumbent on minors and adults, males and females, living or dead.

Islamic law empowers the Islamic State or Community to collect such contributions and keep a separate account of them. The funds thus accumulated must be spent on the eight categories specified in the Qur'an(2:177) namely, the poor and the destitute, the wayfarer, the bankrupt, the needy, converts, captives, the collectors of zakat, and in the cause of God. The last category allows such funds to be used for the general welfare of the community - for the education of the people, for public works, and for any other need of the Muslim community.

Zakat in spirit is an act of worship while in its external form it is the carrying out of social service. It is thus not just the payment of a tax as it is generally understood but is rather an act of religious significance. Its importance is underscored by the fact that the Qur'an treats it at par with salat(prayer). The Qur'an frequently enjoins the believers 'to perform the worship and pay the zakat.' It goes to the extent of saying that one cannot attain righteousness unless one spends out of one's wealth for the love of God: "By no means shall you attain righteousness, unless you give of that which you love."(3:92)

So the test of charity lies not in giving away something we have discarded but the things that we value greatly, something that we love. It is unselfishness that God demands. It may be in any form - one's personal efforts, talents, skill, learning, property or possessions.

The demand of Islam that all its followers should spend their wealth freely on the common good of society cannot be fully met by the payment of the obligatory levy of zakat. According to a hadith the Prophet observed: "In one's wealth there is a due (to God and His men) besides zakat." Hadrat Ali, the fourth Caliph, explained this hadith thus: "God has ordained that the rich are to pay out of their wealth to that extent which is sufficient for the needs of the poor; so that if they do not find food and clothing, or any other need remains to be fulfilled, it would be because the rich are not doing their duty, and for this God will take them to task on the Day of Judgment."

According to Abdullah ibn Umar, the great religious scholar of the first phase of Islam, "If the zakat levy is insufficient to meet the needs of the poor; then it is the duty of the rich of every town to put the poor on their feet."

Abu Zar Ghifari, a companion of the Prophet, reported that the Prophet, while sitting in the shade of the Kabah wall, said, "They are the losers." Abu Zar enquired, "who are they, O Messenger of God?" The Prophet replied: "Those who pile up heaps of wealth and(pointing in all directions with his hands) do not spend like this and this." (Bukhari and Muslim)

There are many verses in the Qur'an and many traditions of the Prophet making it quite clear that there is a due over and above zakat and that the wealthy are not relieved of their duties solely on payment ofzakat.

The Qur'an uses the word 'haq,' the right of the poor; so what the wealthy man is asked to give is not charity but that which should come back to the poor, as a matter of right.

All the expenditure of people in need in an Islamic society is covered by sadaqat (meaning literally 'righteousness' from the root sadaqa, to speak the truth, to be true) - a very wide term used in the Qur'an. (In Islamic literature, this is referred to as sadaqat al tatawwu, or spontaneous alms-giving). According to Ibn Arabi(Akham al-Quran, 2/946-7), alms-giving is called sadaqat to indicate the sincerity(sidk) of the giver's religious belief. He goes on to say that sadaqat is a voluntary act of worship, a choice made of one's own free will. If the act is other than voluntary, it has no religious merit. "For man makes it obligatory for himself, just as God makes mercy obligatory for Himself towards those who repent." The only difference between sadaqat and zakat(the latter being a terms widely used in Quran and the hadith) is that while both kinds of alms-giving are necessarily voluntary (that being the reason for the word sadaqat covering both forms of contribution) the former is the result of an inspiration on the part of the donor as befits certain sets of circumstances, whereas zakat is given on the basis of a fixed percentage of the donor's wealth, (nisab) so that the amount given will vary not according to the needs of a particular donee, but according to the earnings of the donor. In the case of zakat there is also a system of collection set up under Islamic law and there are persons appointed as collectors of these dues. The money thus collected is meant for the general benefit of the community. In the case of sadaqat, the bequest is made directly and spontaneously from one individual to another and the amount given is at the discretion of the giver.

If a very high standard has been set for charity, it is because zakat and sadaqat are performed by believers not just as moral obligations to society, but as sincere endeavors to gain God's pleasure. In his commentary on the Quran, Abdullah Yusuf Ali writes:

1. "It must be in the way of God
2. It must expect no reward in this world
3. It must not be followed by reference or reminders to the acts of charity
4. Still less should any annoyance or injury be caused to the recipient e.g. by boasting that the giver relieved the person in the hour of need.

"

Thus the spirit of kindness and well wishing is the essence of charity. The giver is not to expect any reward from the beneficiary as there awaits for him an abundant reward from God - material, moral and spiritual - what God deems it best to confer on His servant.

The Quran in verses 264 and 271 of the second chapter, warns us against spending "to be seen of men". This is false charity. Alms-giving with this motive is worse than not giving away anything at all. In verse 265 God gives a beautiful parable to illustrate the true nature of charity. It is like a field with good soil on a hillside. it catches good showers of rain and the moisture penetrates the soil. The favourable conditions increase in output enormously. So a man of true charity is spiritually healthy. He is the most likely to attract God's bounties. The Quran goes on to give four parables to explain the truly spiritual nature of charity (2:261:206). These parables explain how true charity bears on the whole of our lives.

Since charity is purely for the sake of God, it has value only if something good and valuable is given. It should be lawfully earned or acquired by the giver. It should include such things as are of use and value to others. Charity is, in the words of the Prophet, to place a thing in the palm of God. It is therefore obvious that placing worthless things in the hand of God dishonours Him.

There are some people who think that acts of charity would ruin them. Abdullah Yusuf Ali comments on such doubts: "No kind or generous act ever ruled one." We have never heard of anyone who, due to his generosity to good causes, has been impoverished. It is because God has promised to shower such a person with greater bounties(2:268). On the other hand, false generosity, that is, extravagant expenditure for show or self indulgence does lead people to ruin.

In verse 273 the Quran states that "Charity is for those in need." This is general principle which enjoins us to help people in need, be they good or bad, on the right path or not, Muslims or non-Muslims. We are not supposed to judge in these matters. The chief ends in charity, as reiterated here, should be God's pleasure and our own spiritual good. This verse in the first instance was revealed in Madina, but it is of general applications.

The concept of charity in Islam is thus linked with justice. It is not limited to the redressal of grievances. It implies apart from the removal of handicaps, the recognition of the right that every human being has to attain the fullness of life.

The spirit of helping others to earn God's pleasure is best reflected in Muslim society in the field of education. Inspired by traditions of the Prophet that the greatest charity for a Muslim being to learn something and then teaching it to others(Ahmad) Muslims in large numbers have devoted themselves to other's education generation after generation.

Knowledge is the most wonderful thing in the whole universe. That is why there is nothing greater then knowledge being imparted by one human being to another. Muslims on a large scale have engaged themselves in receiving education and imparting it to others, individually as well as by establishing maktabs and madrasas, that is, primary schools and Colleges. These educational institutions established in the house of the teachers or in separate buildings, generally made no charges for instruction. During the medieval period, these madrasas flourished in tens of thousands throughout the Muslim world. The wealthy people helped in running these madrasas, not only though zakat, but also by making endowments, (wakf) of their properties as these madrasas. The income from these properties met the needs of these schools. The orphans and poor people were given stipends over and above free board and lodging (Promotion of Learning in India madrasas W.N. H. 104-5)

Sadaqa in the form of wakf is known as sadaqa-e-jaria, i.e. permanent alms. Helping someone to establish himself in business, giving someone a proper education; helping someone to recover from some disease by monetary assistance to looking after the orphans and the destitute; giving scholarships to students, all such charitable works, come under sadaka jaria - that is why so many centres of social welfare have continued to function in the Muslim community. It is unfortunate that the figures of individuals assisting people in need are not available. There are such traditions as stress the importance of giving sadaqain the holy month of Ramazan. Therefore, in this month of fasting, almost all those who can afford it help the poor people in one way or another. The reward for giving voluntary alms in secret is seventy times that of giving it publicly(Al-Baydawi, Anwar al-Tanazil, 2/211).

Sadaqat is a very wide term and is used in the Quran to cover all kinds of charity. Its scope is so vast that even the poor who can have nothing tangible to give can offer sadaqa in the shape of a smile or a glass of water to a thirsty person, or they may even just utter a kindly word. Good conduct is frequently termed sadaqa in the hadith. Planting something from which a person, bird or animal later eats also counts as sadaqa. In this extended sense, acts of loving kindness, even greeting another with a cheerful face, is regarded as sadaqa. In short, every good deal is sadaqa.

The Practice of Sadaqa

Inspired by the verses of the Quran and the traditions and practices of the Prophet and his companions, the giving of Sadaqa to individuals or institutions remained widespread among the Muslims. The Prophet was the most generous of men. He used to give with his own hand. When asked for anything, he never refused. If he had nothing to give, he would borrow from one of his companions and pay him later.

The Prophet's wives were also known for their alms-giving. Of them Zaynab bint Jahsh was the most generous and was called by the Prophet "the longest in arm." She was also known as the "mother of the poor" (umm al-masakin) for her alms-giving. Aisha, the youngest wife of the Prophet too was known as the mother of the poor."(Al-Ghazali, Ihya ulum al-din, vol-1/298). Whenever anyone uttered words of blessing for her, she used to return the same with some aims. After them we have shining examples of generosity set by the pious caliphs. Once when the Prophet urged them to give sadaka . Umar bin al Khattab brought half of what he owned, but only to find that once again Abu Bakr had outdone him by giving away all that he had.There is very interesting example of the generosity of Usman, the third Caliph. During the Caliphate of Abu Bakr people were in great distress due to a drought. The Caliph told them to remain patient, for God would soon relieve them. Before long Usman's caravan arrived with its merchandise from Syria. There were one thousand camels in it, all of them loaded with wheat and foodstuffs from Syria. When the news got around Madina, all the great traders of Madina rapidly converged on Usman's house. When he emerged to meet them, they expressed their urgent desire to purchase the foodstuffs so that they could pass it on to those towns people who needed it.

Ushering them inside, he asked them how much profit they were prepared to give him on the merchandise. "Twelve dirhams on every ten dirhams worth," they replied. "But I can get a better price," said Usman. "Then we'll give you fourteen," Usman again said that he could get a better price, whereupon they put their price up to fifteen dirhams. But Usman stood firm. Bewildered by his attitude, they asked him who could give him a better price, considering that all of the merchants of Madina were already assembled there "I can get ten dirhams for every dirhams's worth," he told them, then asked them if any one of them could give a better price than that. No one spoke up. Then Usman recited the verse of the Quran which says that those who do good will be rewarded tenfold (6:60). He explained to them that he intended to give away all the wheat and other foodstuffs to the needy people of Madina.

According to the teachings of Islam the giving of sadaqa serves a number of functions. Sadaqa first and foremost act as expiation for sins. The believers are asked to give sadaqa immediately following any transgression (Ihya-e-Ulumuddin, Al-Ghazzali, 1/298). Voluntary alms-giving can also compensate for any shortcoming in the past payment of zakat, Sadaqa also gives protection against all kinds of evil.Sadaqa wards off affliction in this world, questioning in the grave and punishment on Judgment Day. (Ismail Hakki, Tafsir Ruh-alBayan, 1/418). It is therefore recommended to give sadaqa by night and by day, in secret and in public to seek God's pleasure (Quran, 2:274). The constant giving of a little is said to please God more than the occasional giving of much. Sadaqa is also a means of moral edification.